401002 Bioscience

Question 1:

a) Pulmonary ventilation:

Ventilation is defined as the process of breathing. The ventilation is defined as the  air movement through the  airway passage between the atmosphere and the lungs (Garcia Parraga,  Moore & Fahlman, 2018). The air transfers through the airway opening due to pressure gradient which produces contradiction of the diaphragm as well as thoracic muscle. In this context, the pulmonary ventilation is a process of air transfer into lungs during inhalation and out of the lungs during exhalation (Fujita et al., 2021). The air flows into the lungs due to the pressure difference between the atmospheres of the gas inside the lungs. Air and other gases flow from an area with a high pressure and low pressure the molecular breeding humans as well as withdrawal of elastic tissues develop the change in the pressure which results in ventilation (Hepburn‐Brown, Darvall & Hammerschlag, 2019). Therefore, the pulmonary ventilation often involves three diverse pressures such as environmental pressure and intra-pleural pressure, intra-alveolar pressure.

b) Role of surfactants in breathing:

The prime purpose of surfactant is to lower the surface tension at the air and liquid interface.  Such  surfactants often  developed of approximately 70% to 80% phospholipid, mainly dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), along with other  proteins such as  SP-A- D. it  also  consists of 10% neutral lipids, essentially cholesterol (Autilio & Pérez-Gil, 2019). Surfactants for the surface tension of lungs are manufactured principally by the alveolar type II cell. Such cells also created surfactant lipids as well as  surfactant proteins (Guagliardo et al., 2018). All these proteins have hydrophobic and hydrophilic region in order to improve surface tension.  In this context, the pulmonary surfactant is often secreted from lungs as it reduces the surface tension at the air and water interface in the alveoli and prevents the collapse of the structure at the end expiration (Hepburn‐Brown, Darvall & Hammerschlag, 2019). Therefore, it reduces blocks associated with breathing.

c) Role of surfactant  for premature baby:

Pulmonary surfactant is often defined as a complex mixture of phospholipid as well as protein which create a cohesive surface layer over the alveoli in order to reduce the surface tension while maintaining the alveolar stability (Guagliardo et al., 2018). Therefore it prevents atelectasis, a phenomenon where partial collapse of the entire lungs are observed. Such condition often creates breathing issues. In case of premature baby, when lungs are unable to produce enough pulmonary surfactants for reducing surface tension, the alveoli of the baby collapse with each breath (Autilio & Pérez-Gil, 2019). As the alveoli collapsed, the damaged cells collected in airways of lungs which often resulted in difficulty in breathing followed by shortness of breath (Ahmad et al., 2019).  These cells are often called hyaline membranes and it creates difficulty in breathing harder while trying to inflate the airways (Autilio & Pérez-Gil, 2019).  Therefore, for premature neonates, the pulmonary surfactants are often provided from outside in order to create   surface tension and reduce breathing difficulties.

Question 2:

a) Source of calcium:

The minerals present in drinking water is the major source of calcium and play fundamental part in maintaining calcium homeostasis. Other sources of calcium include dairy products (milk, cheese almond and soya milk) (Cormick & Belizán, 2019).  Calcium is excellent contributor of bone health. It is the widely used mineral in the body found in bone as well as teeth. It is important for preserving bone mass density to sustain the skeleton of human. The body also used calcium for the muscles and heart function.

b) Major source of vitamin D and role in bone health:

The major source of vitamin D is exposure of the skin to sunlight.   On the other hand, other resources of vitamin D include oily fish, red meat, fortified foods and egg yolk. Vitamin D is fundamental for strong bone as well as muscles (Sassi,  Tamone & D’Amelio, 2018). Without the vitamin D the human body is unable to absorb calcium effectively and hence, unable to develop the bone mass density for supporting the skeleton.

c) Consequence of bone health in absence of vitamin D or calcium:

It is often common instances where children with lack of vitamin D develop conditions like rickets.  On the other hand, calcium deficiency or lack of calcium often resulted in osteoporosis and osteopenia (Sassi,  Tamone & D’Amelio, 2018).

References:

Ahmad, K. A., Bennett, M. M., Ahmad, S. F., Clark, R. H., & Tolia, V. N. (2019). Morbidity and mortality with early pulmonary haemorrhage in preterm neonates. Archives of Disease in Childhood-Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 104(1), F63-F68.

Autilio, C., & Pérez-Gil, J. (2019). Understanding the principle biophysics concepts of pulmonary surfactant in health and disease. Archives of Disease in Childhood-Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 104(4), F443-F451. https://relaped.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Understanding-the-principle-biophysics-concepts-of-pulmonary-surfactant-in-the-health-and-disease.pdf

Cormick, G., & Belizán, J. M. (2019). Calcium intake and health. Nutrients, 11(7), 1606. doi:10.3390/nu11071606

Fujita, Y., Kent, M., Wisner, E., Johnson, L., Stern, J., Qi, L., ... & Yamamoto, T. (2021). Combined assessment of pulmonary ventilation and perfusion with single-energy computed tomography and image processing. Academic radiology, 28(5), 636-646. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1076633220301963

Garcia Parraga, D., Moore, M., & Fahlman, A. (2018). Pulmonary ventilation–perfusion mismatch: a novel hypothesis for how diving vertebrates may avoid the bends. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 285(1877), 20180482. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rspb.2018.0482

Guagliardo, R., Pérez-Gil, J., De Smedt, S., & Raemdonck, K. (2018). Pulmonary surfactant and drug delivery: Focusing on the role of surfactant proteins. Journal of Controlled Release, 291, 116-126. doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.10.012

Hepburn‐Brown, M., Darvall, J., & Hammerschlag, G. (2019). Acute pulmonary embolism: a concise review of diagnosis and management. Internal medicine journal, 49(1), 15-27. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/imj.14145

Sassi, F., Tamone, C., & D’Amelio, P. (2018). Vitamin D: nutrient, hormone, and immunomodulator. Nutrients, 10(11), 1656. doi:10.3390/nu10111656

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